Migrations
The aim of this assignment is to identify the primary and secondary effects of migration both now and in the future. Migrations have accompanied humanity since the dawn of time and are often one of the most important factors influencing the population of a given area. Migrations are most often caused by the desire to improve material well-being, displacements, escape from persecution, armed conflicts (refugees and asylum seekers), natural disasters (e.g. droughts, floods). The term migration itself refers to a change of residence permanently or for a certain period. Because migration is a huge topic, I have narrowed it down the European migrations in this written assignment. This is because Europe is currently the largest area when it comes to the so-called external migration. Mainly due to the economic development of Western Europe, low birth rate, aging population of the "old continent", which consequently leads to the availability of jobs for immigrants, especially from former European colonies. The factors that causing migration can be divided into those that push people out, and those that "attract", i.e., influence the choice of places of emigration. The first group includes: economic factors, high level of unemployment, poor economic situation of the country, housing and employment difficulties, demographic factors, too many inhabitants who are in the labour market, human rights violations, armed conflict, lack of prospects, political situation. On the other hand, the "attracting" factors include historical factors – the occurrence of emigrants from their own country in earlier years, economic factors – low unemployment, legal factors – low requirements for foreigners, socio-economic factor – acceptance of foreigners. (Human migration sparked by wars, disasters, and now climate, 2019)
Migration processes in Europe – an overview
The beginnings of international migrations are associated with great geographical discoveries and European colonial expansion. People were migrating from Europe, which could not accommodate and feed all its inhabitants. They were enticed by the prospect of land ownership, the possibility of finding gold, and new natural resources that had been depleted in Europe. The most common direction to which the population emigrated were the newly colonized areas of the Americas, Africa, and Asia. Overseas was inhabited mainly by people from the south of the continent, including Italians, Portuguese, Spaniards, and Greeks. In Great Britain, on the other hand, the development of large factories and the agrarian revolution contributed to depriving the expropriated farmers and craftsmen of their previous forms of income, which in turn caused mass emigration to the United States. Only economic growth, which continued in the West until the early 1970s, soon halted transatlantic migration flows. But it is important to mention that the Industrial revolution and industrialization that took place in Western Europe would not have been possible if it had not been for investing the profits from the colonies. (Human migration sparked by wars, disasters, and now climate, 2019) ; (Weiwei, 2017)
Economic prosperity combined with post-war labour shortages and the barrier to migration posed by the Iron Curtain contributed to the rapidly developing North-West Europe becoming a major destination for Yugoslavs, Turks, and North Africans. Unskilled workers were seen as a cheap force that would return to their country of origin in the event of an economic downturn. Germany deserves special attention in this context, as its system is, or at least was, considered the best developed form of recruitment of temporary workers. The key to its functioning was the legal differentiation between the statutes of citizens and foreigners, which determined the granting of political and social rights. To avoid migrations related to the reunification of guest workers' families, the Federal Republic of Germany recruited mainly unmarried people. However, the reunification process could not be avoided and the migration, which was supposed to be temporary, gradually turned into an extended stay, and eventually settling whole families and creating immigrant communities. In addition to rapid economic growth, the decline of colonialism contributed to the increase in the scale of immigration to Europe. This is particularly the case for Great Britain, the Netherlands and France, where immigrants from the Caribbean, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and Maghreb countries came. In the case of these migrations, the host countries knew immigrants are coming permanently. The first problems could be seen during the 1973 oil crisis and the ensuing economic stagnation. Many immigrants have become victims of socio-economic exclusion, discrimination, and racism. The change in the structure of the economy and the labour market that has taken place in the 1970s, such as the loss of some jobs resulting from robotization relocation of certain industries outside Europe, has contributed to the high unemployment rate among migrants. As they were usually less educated than the citizens of the countries in which they lived, they encountered much greater difficulties in adapting to the new economic situation. Inadequacy to the labour market and problems with retraining also affected the second generation of immigrants. (Christof Van Mol, 2016)
Theories of migration
Beyond a set of social, economic, political, and environmental factors, migration in any region is largely determined by the perception and behaviour of individuals. Therefore, there is no comprehensive theory of migration, although attempts have been made to integrate migration into economic and social theory, spatial analysis, and behavioural theory.
The first attempt to formulate "immigration laws" was made by E.G. Ravenstein (Ravenstein, 1885) as early as 1885. Using data related to place of birth, Ravenstein identified a set of generalizations that he called "migration laws" regarding migration between Britain in the nineteenth century. Most of these generalizations persist even today. Based on observations, he found, for example, that there is an inverse relationship between the distance and the size of the migration. Most migrants travel only short distances. Immigrants who travel remotely, as a rule, prefer large commercial and industrial centres. Another observation was that the migration is step-by-step process. Villagers flock to the nearby fast-growing city. The gap created by this migration in the countryside is filled by migration from even more distant rural areas. The townspeople then move to a nearby urban centre in the hierarchy. In addition, according to Ravenstein, women are more mobile than men in the country of birth, but it is men who are more likely to go beyond it. He also notes that migration is highly age-selective, as working-age adults are more likely to migrate. As for the reasons why people choose to migrate, the theory of the dual market by Michael Piore seems to be interesting. Michael Piore's theory (Pior, 2001) of the dual labour market also focuses on the demand side of economic mobility. This theory assumes that there is a permanent shortage of labour in highly developed countries. This is because citizens of such a country do not take up many jobs due to their low pay, lack of need for higher qualifications, or finally the danger associated with their performance It assumes the creation of a division in immigrant countries into industries and positions intended for the native population and those occupied by newcomers. Such division results in social distribution of prestige and the link between work and social position. In the case of migrants, this position is lower, which is to compensate for the feeling of temporariness in exile, as well as the perception of home country environment as a reference group. Temporary nature of migration seems to create a strong differentiation between work and the social identity of the worker. This is the kind of work that migrants do. In this light, migration has a stabilising effect on the host country's economy and does not increase unemployment. Some weaknesses of this theory can be pointed out however, because in this context, it is not possible to explain migration between countries with a similar level of economic development. It also does not consider the phenomenon of highly qualified people migrating.
There is one more theory that I would like to point out. Although it is not a typical theory of migration, it attempts to explain its causes and the dependencies influencing it. This is the theory of world-systems. It was forged by Immanuel Wallerstein. (Wallerstein, 1974 with a New Prologue ed. (10 Jun. 2011)) A man who was born in Poland and experienced emigration himself. According to Wallerstein, the "long sixteenth century" was crucial for the emergence of the modern world-system, which, according to various assumptions, was to extend from 1450 to 1650. According to Wallerstein, it was this period that determined the shape of the modern world, and above all the victory of capitalism, European domination, and the distribution of centres and peripheries. The world-system is constituted by economic and political structures. Economic structures are based on the flows of the means of production, capital, products, and labour. They transcend national borders and unify the world-system. Based on these, central and peripheral areas are formed. Central areas, through unequal exchange, gain more at the expense of peripheral areas. They produce highly processed goods and carry out innovative processes. The peripheral areas export labour and raw materials, and their development depends on relations with the centre. The areas in which central and peripheral processes are balanced are the semi-periphery. They are dependent on the centre and at the same time exploit the periphery.
Problems associated with migration.
The refugee dilemma has existed for hundreds of years. After each war, new groups were formed, looking for a home, crossing countries and continents. Since the 17th century, Africa has remained a flashpoint region where, in addition to internal rivalries between tribes and ethnic groups, countries fought for liberation and independence against colonizers from Europe. Ethnic and tribal conflicts in Africa have persisted since the independence of states in the 1960s to the present day. Intra-state disputes generate an increasing number of migrants. While much of the international attention has been focused on refugees arriving in Europe, there has been another migration crisis in Africa and the Middle East. Escalating violence in Afghanistan, Syria, Libya, Yemen and conflicts in Mali, Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Kenya have forced thousands of women, men, and children to flee their homes. They flee war-torn regions, often knowing that they have lost their chance to return. The UNHCR camps are their only chance of survival, but at the same time they are a curse. Since the establishment of the first camp in 1972, the number of refugees in Africa has been steadily increasing. Currently they host tens of thousands of people whose origins vary depending on the geographical location of the country. Migrants do not choose specific countries but seek the nearest refuge. In most cases, the camps are dominated by one nation which, due to the conflict in their own country, leaves the territory of that country and moves to the nearest safe territory. Since the launch of UNHCR's humanitarian work, refugee camps run by the organisation have been the most common destination for forcibly displaced persons. But now even they are struggling with problems. Currently, the biggest challenges in relation to migrants in camps in Africa include three factors: lack of refugee land, language barriers, cultural differences, legislation, and national politics. (DW News, 2023)
In 2015 alone, 65 million people left their homes to escape armed conflict, persecution, or the effects of natural disasters. This is the largest number of displaced people since World War II. Almost 45 million have found refuge within their own country and fled to neighbouring countries for example to the developing countries in the Middle East and North Africa – and not - contrary to appearances - to rich Europe, the United States or Canada. The largest number of refugees are currently in Turkey, Pakistan, Lebanon, Iran, Uganda, and Ethiopia. 1.75 million have arrived in Europe. By 2015 The West has helped refugees mainly by donating money to UN humanitarian programs. The organization used them to build camps for refugees, provide them with food, clothes, and medicines. Such camps, although intended and temporary, are inhabited for an average of more than ten years, and their inhabitants have no right to employment or movement.
The uncontrolled increase in the number of refugees is an undeniable threat to international security. Ethnic and tribal conflicts in Africa have persisted since the independence of states in the 1960s to the present day. Intra-state disputes generate an increasing number of migrants.
The map of the countries of origin of people arriving on the shores of Europe is constantly changing. In 2015, they were mainly Syrians, Afghans, Iraqis, and Eritreans. Today, they are mostly Nigerians, Guineans, citizens of the Ivory Coast and Bangladesh. However, since 2022, we have been dealing with a huge wave of refugees from Ukraine. In recent months, these have also included Palestinians. Most people who crossed into Europe in search of security and a better life first ended up in Greece, the main victim of the economic crisis. Since the signing of the EU-Turkey agreement in March 2016, the influx of refugees has decreased significantly, and the main migration route has since been through Italy, which has also been hit hard by the crisis. Confronted with an unprecedented influx of refugees, these countries' asylum systems have proven to be inefficient.
(DW News, 2023)
The issue of migration is so difficult because it is a whole series of overlapping problems, the baggage of history, and many years of neglect. At the same time, the West's migration policy is still based on the message that everyone is allowed to come here. The procedures based on which decisions are made about who is an illegal immigrant and who is a legal immigrant are fifty years old. They are too slow and inefficient because they were designed in a different time, with a much lower level of migration. There are no structures capable of managing such a crisis. The rapid growth of migration has challenged the self-portrait of national identities and challenges long-standing beliefs about the values of democracy, multiculturalism, and tolerance. In such a situation, many European politicians have made great use of migrants for political purposes. Because this situation has provided fuel for all those who sensed that great mass fears were being born and that migrants were playing a key role in them. All kinds of prejudices, racial and religious, are emerging, so far deeply hidden. We know, for example, that migrants have little to do with terrorism, but for obvious reasons it was easy to link the two. as a result, we see the EU divided, weak and choked. All our fears have been used against us.
The uncontrolled number of refugees in Africa will have an impact on the situation in Europe. Migrants will look for opportunities to cross to another continent, struggling to survive. European governments are not and will not be able to stem the rush of migrants, and current funding for humanitarian organizations to keep them on the continent is too low.
It seems that the only solution to the problem of growing migration and progressive demographic trends in Africa is to focus on Africa's economic development. Such activities should be undertaken primarily by the local population, supported in this area by Western countries. Europe, and more narrowly the European Union, does not have the capacity to accept more migrants due to the lack of specialized programs and a long-term strategy for managing the influx of people throughout the Schengen Area. (Human migration sparked by wars, disasters, and now climate, 2019)
References
Christof Van Mol, H. V. (2016). Integration Processes and Policies in Europe, 2016. In H. V. Christof Van Mol, Integration Processes and Policies in Europe, 2016 (pp. 31-55). Springer, Cham. Retrieved from Migration and Immigrants in Europe: A Historical and Demographic Perspective: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-21674-4_3
DW News. (2023, september 21). Global migration crisis: What solutions do politicians have? Retrieved from youtube.com: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eriCJdndadY
Human migration sparked by wars, disasters, and now climate. (2019, Ferbruary 28). Retrieved from National Geographic Partners: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/migration
Pior, M. (2001). The Dual Labor Market: Theory and Implications. In M. Pior, Social Stratification, Class, Race, and Gender in Sociological Perspective (p. 4). Routledge.
Ravenstein, E. (1885). The Laws of Migration. In E. Ravenstein, The Laws of Migration (pp. 167-235). London: Wiley for the Royal Statistical Society.
Wallerstein, I. M. (1974 with a New Prologue ed. (10 Jun. 2011)). THE MODERN WORLD-SYSTEM . University of California Press.
Weiwei, A. (Director). (2017). Human Flow [Motion Picture].